Thursday, February 28, 2013

Manusmṛti

Manusmṛti

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Manusmṛti (written also as Manusmriti or Manusmruti) (Sanskrit: मनुस्मृति), also known as Mānava-Dharmaśāstra (Sanskrit: मानवधर्मशास्त्र), is one metrical work of the Dharmaśāstra textual tradition of ancient Vedic Sanatana Dharma, presently called Hinduism.[1] Generally known in English as the Laws of Manu, or Dharmic discourse to vedic Rishis, on 'how to lead the life' or 'way of living' by various classes of society. The text presents itself as a discourse given by the sage Manu, to a congregation of seers, or rishis, who beseeched him, after the great floods,[2] in the vedic state of 'Brahmavarta', in India, some 10,000 years ago, to tell them on, how to face such calamities in future by organising themselves and lead an organized life with the "guidelines for all the social classes".[3] Veteran sages Manu and Bhrigu gave them a discourse in some 2685 shlokas, compilation of which is called 'Manusmriti'. Apart from Indian subcontinent, Manuic Laws of India prevailed during ancient times, in neighbouring countries also,[4] which formed the territory called Greater India. A copy of the Scripture (with English translation) is available online.[5] Manu became the standard point of reference for all future Dharmaśāstras that followed it.[6] Manusmriti was first translated into English in 1794 by Sir William Jones, a Philologist and a judge of the British Supreme Court of Judicature in Calcutta [7] who had great respect for the book.[8]

Contents

Date and place

Matsya pulls a boat carrying Manu and Saptrishi during floods or Pralaya
Different scholars have given a range of timings for creation of this text, from 1500 BCE to 500 AD. However, the basic fact of the time period of existence of flood-figure Manu [9][10] and Bhrigu, compatriot and contemporary of Manu, who had his Ashram on the bank of 'Vadhusar River' in the Vedic state of 'Brahmavarta',[11] who were the authors of Manusmriti, is ignored all together, which happens to be the period of great floods,[12] 10,000 years ago, after last ice age having mentions in Persian book Avesta, Indian Sanskrit text Shatapatha Brahmana and now scientific evidence is available on various websites.[2] Floods had ravaged the vedic state of 'Brahmavarta', located on the confluence of two huge Vedic rivers Saraswati and Drishadwati, where the Ashrams of Devas were located.[13] The state 'Brahmavarta' is now identified on the borders of North Rajasthan and South Haryana, mainly in and around Shekhawati and Jhunjhunu region of Rajasthan and parts of Haryana in the districts of Mahendragarh and Rewari on the basis of images of paleochannals [14] of these rivers from satellites, geo-morphological studies of the soils, which confirm presence of soil particles of Himalayan rocks in the areas represented by Saraswati river, and mentions of the area in Mahabharat, Rigved, Shatapatha Brahmana, Manusmriti and various Puranas.[15] As per epic 'Mahabharat' Bhrigu Rishi had his Ashram at 'Deepotsak' on 'Vadhusar' river, and his son Chyavana, on Dhosi Hill [16] a tributary of Drishadwati river, in the Vedic state of 'Brahmavarta'. As per Skanda Purana, Bhrigu Rishi had migrated to 'Bharuch', located on Narmada river later on. Even Archeological findings near Narmada river are dated more than 8500 years old[17] and said to be belonging to post Bhrigu era, confirming that Bhrigu and Manu had existed some 10,000 years ago, and their creation 'Manusmriti' is that old.
The identity of place 'Brahmavarta', the Vedic state [18] where, sages Manu and Bhrigu had given the discourse, and Manusmriti was compiled is also confirmed by the fact that the nomenclature used to describe, animals, birds, crops, trees, plants, house utilities, activities of people, geographical conditions etc. in 'Manusmriti' is still in use in the area, and these things exist physically also. Khetri Copper Mines and Dhosi Hill are important landmarks in 'Brahmavarta'. The Saraswati river, which had flown at the time of floods, made the western border of Brahmavarta state,[19] while northern border was formed by Drishadwati river which had flown in along the inner side of Aravali hill from the pot of 'Brahma' called Pushkar lake near Ajmer in Rajasthan. Because of seismic activities in Aravali ranges 7–8000 years ago, Monsoon water from Ajmer district stopped flowing in to Drishadwati and migrated to Chambal River, however water from part of Jaipur, Sikar and Alwar districts in Rajasthan, still flows in the old Drishadwati river, presently known as 'Sahbi river' and finally goes in to Yamuna river near Delhi.[20]

Context

Dark orange: The Indian subcontinent. Light orange: Other countries culturally linked to India, notably Burma, Thailand, cambodia, Laos, Champa, Indonesia, Malaysia, Brunei, and Singapore. Yellow: Regions with significant cultural Indian influence, notably Afghanistan, Tibet, Yunnan and Philippines. (Also, not shown, Fiji.)
Great floods [9][10] which occurred after rapid melting of Himalayan glaciers at the end of last ice age, and higher rainfalls in Aravalli ranges,[21] were devastating for habitants of Vedic state of 'Brahmavarta' and surrounding areas. Senior Rishis of the area gathered and decided to approach the oldest Saint or Rishi Manu, who had escaped the floods and is said to be 400 years old at that time, to advise the conference, from his memory (in Sanskrit and Hindi Smriti) and experiences, on 'how to face such calamities in future and lead a peaceful and organised life'.[22] Thus, the 2685 shaloks discoursed by Manu and Bhrigu to the conference on various aspects came to be known as 'Manusmriti', which some call 'Laws of Manu', while others consider it to be an 'advisory' only. This conference/congregation was also the beginning of organised living by Vedic people or formal launching of Vedic Sanatana Dharma.[23] Olivelle says that Manu's discourse was referred in all later Dharamshastras.[24]
Though most scholars had previously considered the text a composite put together over a long period of time, Olivelle has recently argued that the complex and consistent structure of the text suggests a single author. However, no details of this eponymous author's life are known, though it is likely that he belonged to a conservative Brahmin caste somewhere in Northern India.[6]
Several countries in South East Asia and neighbouring countries,[25]as shown in picture here, had followed Dharmasustra of Manu in the ancient times to form their laws, before the advent of Buddhism.[26]
An earlier opinion generally dated composition of the text any time between 200 BCE and 200 CE.[27] After the breakdown of the Maurya and Shunga empires, there was a period of uncertainty that led to renewed interest in traditional social norms.[28] In Thapar's view, "The severity of the Dharma-shastras was doubtless a commentary arising from the insecurity of the orthodox in an age of flux."[29]
The dharma class of texts were noteworthy also because they did not depend on the authority of particular Vedic schools, becoming the starting point of an independent tradition that emphasised dharma itself and not its Vedic origins.[30]

Structure

The original narrative was subdivided into twelve chapters. There is debate over the effects of this division on the underlying, holistic manner in which the original treatise was written.[31] The book is written in simple verse as opposed to the metrical verse of the preceding dharmasutras.Manu also introduced a unique "transitional verse" which segued the end of one subject and the beginning of the next.
The treatise is written with a frame story, in which a dialogue takes place between Manu's adopted son, Bhrigu, and an audience of the Rishis who had assembled. The story begins with Manu himself detailing the creation of the world and the society within it, structured around four social classes. Bhrigu takes over for the remainder of the work, teaching the details of the rest of Manu's teachings. The audience reappears twice more, asking first about how the Brahmins could be subjected to death, and second to ask the effects of action.[32] Initial Vedic seers, Bhrigu, Kashyap, Atri, Vishvamitra, and Vashista who had their Ashrams scattered in to area called Aryavarta north of Vindhyachal mountain ranges,[33] shared their wise thoughts and started compiling Rigveda, various Samhitas like Bhrigu Samhita, thoughts on astronomy, and Upnishads. They also conceived the most revered Spiritual God of Vedic people 'Lord Shiva' and means of his worship through meditation to achieve mental health and peace.[34]. The process of compilation of thoughts of wisdom (Vedas) continued through next generations for centuries onward as mentioned in Vedas.

Salient features of Manusmriti

Is verna of a person hereditary or acquired?
This is the topic that appears controversial in Manusmriti. There are several shlokas which explain the fluid nature of verna classification and how verna could be changed with acquiring knowledge. There are some others which advocate compartmentalised vernas.
For example, the Brahmins are considered the highest varna or caste, and are supposed to be engaged in learning, teaching and religious sacrifices. The Kshatriyas are the 'guardians' -- the kings, the soldiers etc., the "Vaishyas" are the traders and farmers and the "Shudras" are the serving class. The first three classes are called "twice born" or Dvija. The first three wear the sacred thread on their body, while the Shudras do not.
Knowledge is important than birth in a clan
Manusmriti assigns various roles for the four Varnas of the community on the basis of their knowledge of Vedic texts. Manu, the senior most saint at that time, did not issue an 'ordinance' on classification of community by birth, as Britishers made it out to be. Their wrong consideration of Manusmriti as an ordinance, compartmentalised the Varna system in to four rigid caste system and harmed the Indian community. Manu's sermon to the congregation of Rishis was only an 'advisory'. The concept of dwija and shudra,[35] at birth of a human is not rigid or compartmentalised. It is fluid and flexible and can change with the type of work one adopts. Yajurveda says that at birth, all humans are born shudras, but the true birth or the second birth or true verna has to be achieved through education and profession. An important message is that a Shudra could qualify to a higher class by remaining clean, showing polite behaviour and in the company of other three higher Varnas.[36] Manusmriti also says that a Brahmin would be degraded and classified as a Shudra, even if he consumes liquer once.[37] Also, if a Brahmin remains uneducated he'll be equated to Shudra [38]
Knowers of Vedic texts, the 'Brahmins' are given the most important status for their enormous contributions to Dharm, Earth and Environment.[39] Dharmic duties of Brahmins are defined as reading and gaining knowledge, teaching to others, performing Yajnas and rituals, give and accept donations [40] Kshatriyas are told to provide security to people, give donations, hold yajnas, study and not to involve in discussions.[41] while that of Vaishyas are, animal husbandry, giving donations, hold yajnas, to study, do business, charge interest and do agriculture,.[42] Shudras, who are not educated at all, are given the task to serve the other three vernas.[43] This division of community is strictly on 'knowledge' basis. Even among Brahmins, those who have higher and deeper knowledge of Vedas are considered superiors.[44]
Lower classes can upgrade
There are several examples from history, that prominent Saints were born in lower varnas but qualified to higher vernas and were duly respected by all. Rishi Valmiki who was born in lower verna got education and qualified to become a religious writer and wrote, Valmiki Ramayana which is a revered document even today. Similarly, Aitareya saint or Rishi was son of a Daasa or criminal, but became a Brahmin of highest order and wrote one of classics Aitareya Brahmana and Aitareyopanishad. Aitareya Brahman is considered critical to understand Rigveda.
There are historical migrations of verna, in ancient history. Satyakaam Jaabal was son of a prostitute but qualified later on, to become a Brahmin. Allush Rishi was son of a 'Daasi', gambler and of low character but he did research on Rigveda and made several discoveries. Not only was he invited by Rishis but also made an Acharya [45]
Prishad who was son of king Daksha, became a Shudra because of his activities, had to do tapasya and achieve salvation after repenting.[46] Vidur, who was son of a servant became a Brahmin and a prominent minister in Hastinapur empire. Similarly, Vatsa became a Rishi though born to a Shudra.[47] Vishnu Puran[48] says that Guru of Pandavas, Shaunak, was born in a Kshatriya family but bacame a Brahmin. Raavana who was born a Brahmin to Pulatsaya Rishi, is considered a 'Raakshasha'.
During medieval period, in the 16th century, the Hindu king Hem Chandra Vikramaditya born in to a family of Purohits (Brahmins) got involved in business (Vaishya) and changed his profile again and became a warrior (Kshatriya) to win 22 battles continuously against Afghan rebels and Mughal forces throughout north India.[49]

Commentaries on Manu

There have been several commentaries on the dating and place of Manu, and the Manu Smṛti. Some of the commentaries are listed below:
Bhāruci Bhāruci is the oldest known commentator on the Manu Smṛti. Kane places Manu in the late 10th or early 11th century,[50] Olivelle places him in the 8th century,[51] and Derrett places him between 600–650 CE.[51] From these three opinions we can place Bhāruci anywhere from the early 7th century CE to the early 11th century CE. The surviving portion of Bhāruci's commentary that we have today deals mostly with the duties of the king and whether or not the king can be a source of dharma.
Medhātithi Medhātithi is one of the most famous commentators on the Manu Smṛti, and there is some debate regarding the location in which he was writing, but scholars such as Buhler, Kane, and Lingat tend to believe he was from Kashmir or the area around Kashmir. The exact date that Medhātithi was writing is also unclear, and he has been placed anywhere between 820CE and 1050CE.[52]
Economic ideas The economic ideas found in Manusmriti have been traced by Ratan Lal Basu.[53]
Comments on Location of Brahmavarta
Manusmriti, one of the oldest scriptures of Hinduism, has been discussed and analysed by colonial scholars, modern liberals, and Hindu reformists regularly and continuously. Much of its criticism stems from its deemed, unknown authority, as some believe the text to be authoritative, though some consider it is only an advisory. There is also debate over whether the text has suffered from later interpolations of verses, as there are many shaloks which are contradictory to each other. The new findings on the state of 'Brahmavarta' at the junction of Saraswati and Drishadwati rivers, as described in Manusmriti itself, and abode of Vedic Rishis like Bhrigu and Manu[54] are giving credence to the timing of its writing, flood time 10,000 years ago [55]
The Manu Smriti was one of the first Sanskrit texts studied by the British. It was first translated into English by the founder of indology, Sir William Jones, who had great respect for the book.[56] His version was published in 1794.[57] British administrative requirements encouraged their interest in the Dharmashastras, which they believed to be legal codes. In fact, these were not codes of law but norms related to social obligations and ritual requirements. For British were interested in Dharmashastras due to administrative needs, and their misinterpretation of them as legal codes rather than as social and ritual texts created many confusions and encouraged caste system in India.[58]
According to Avari:
The text was not followed or acclaimed by the vast majority of Indians in their history; it came to the world's attention through a late eighteenth-century translation by Sir William Jones, who mistakenly exaggerated both its antiquity and its importance. Today many of its ideas are popularised as the golden norm of classical Hindu law by Hindu universalists. They are, however, anathema to some modern thinkers.[59]
Some commentaries suggest that the contents in Manu Smriti appear to be positive towards the Brahmin (priest) caste in terms of concessions made in fines and punishments. The stance of the Manu Smriti about women has also been widely discussed. While certain verses such as (III – 55, 56, 57, 59, 62) glorify the position of women, other verses (IX – 3, 17) seem to attack the position and freedom of women. The education of women is also discussed in the text. Certain interpretations of Verse (IX – 18) claim that it discourages women from reading Vedic scriptures. Verse (II – 240), however, allows women to read Vedic scriptures. Similar contradictory phrases are encountered in relation to child marriage in verses (IX – 94) and (IX – 90).
Woman is to make her body beautiful by adorning it with clothes and ornaments; that the man may be attracted by her. Woman is to be so worshipped that she be made a fitting decoration for the man’s bedroom. Manu has given women the equal share in the parental property.
The laws of Manusmrithi consider woman to be an individual bound by the family relationships, with no rights of her own. The verses of the fifth chapter starting from 147 to 169 are all about the woman. Even if she were to become a widow in her youth, she is not to marry again, though now all Varnas go for re-marriages. Even if her husband indulges in adultery, she is still to consider him on equal footing with God. Woman is entitled to share in the wealth of the family. The wages for her labour will be half that of the man. So goes the laws of Manusmrithi concerning woman.[60]
In his book Revolution and Counter-Revolution in India, Dalit leader B. R. Ambedkar opined that Manu Smriti was written by a sage named Brigu during the times of Pushyamitra of Sangha in connection with social pressures caused by the rise of Buddhism.[61] However, historian Romila Thapar considers these claims to be exaggerations. She writes that archaeological evidence casts doubt on the claims of Buddhist persecution by Pushyamitra.[62] Support of the Buddhist faith by the Sungas at some point is suggested by an epigraph on the gateway of Bharhut, which mentions its erection "during the supremacy of the Sungas"[63] Hinduism does not evangelize.[64]
However, not all Hindus agree with the criticisms of the text, or the assertion that the Manu Smriti is authoritative. Some prominent Hindu figures, such as Swami Dayananda Saraswati[65] and A.C. Bhaktivedanta Swami,[66] hold the text to be authentic and authoritative. Other admirers of the text have included Annie Besant, P.D. Ouspensky, Pandurang Shastri Athavale and Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan. Friedrich Nietzsche is noted to have said "Close the Bible and open the Manu Smriti. "It has an affirmation of life, a triumphing agreeable sensation in life and that to draw up a lawbook such as Manu means to permit oneself to get the upper hand, to become perfection, to be ambitious of the highest art of living"[67] Contra Nietzsche, Nipissing University philosophy professor W.A. Borody has coined the phrase "sublimation-transmogrification logic" to describe the underlying 'state of mind' lying behind the ethical teaching of the Manu Smrti—a 'state of mind' that would have found Nietzsche's concept of the Dionysian Übermensch abhorrent, and a 'state of mind' or 'voice' that has always been radically contested within India's various philosophical and religious traditions.[68]

References

Citations

  1. ^ See Flood 1996: 56 and Olivelle 2005.
  2. ^ a b www.iceagenow.com
  3. ^ Manusmriti Chapter 1, Shalok 2
  4. ^ Wikipedia page on Law of Thailand Sources of Law
  5. ^ http://www.scribd.com/doc/7189037/Manu-Smriti-Sanskrit-Text-With-English-Translation
  6. ^ a b Olivelle, "Literary History", p. 16.
  7. ^ Jones's translation is available online as The Institutes of Hindu Law: Or, The Ordinances of Manu, Calcutta: Sewell & Debrett, 1796.
  8. ^ Statue of Sir William Jones,in St. Paul's Cathedral in London is shown holding a copy of Manusmriti in hand
  9. ^ a b Matsayapuran
  10. ^ a b Vishnupuran
  11. ^ Sudhir Bhargava,"Location of Brahmavarta State and Drishadwati River is important to find the earliest alignment of Saraswati River", Seminar on Saraswati River-A Perspective,International Conference Nov. 20-22, 2009, Kurukshetra University, Kurukshetra, Saraswati Shodh Sansthan, Haryana
  12. ^ Saroj Bala, "Saraswati River a Mystery",'India Today', August 2006,pages 29-33
  13. ^ Manusmriti, Chapter 2, shalok 17
  14. ^ P.C.Bakliwal and A.K.Grover,1988, Signature and migration of Saraswati river in Thar desert, Western India, Rec. Geo. Survey of India, 116: Pts. 3-8, pp. 77-86:
  15. ^ 'Location of Brahmvrat and Drishadwati River is important to find earliest alignment of Saraswati River' by Sudhir Bhargava, International Conference on Saraswati River-a Perspective, at Kurukshetra University, Kurukshetra, organised by, 'Saraswati Nadi Shodh Sansthan, Haryana', Nov. 20-22, 2009, p. 114-117
  16. ^ Mahabharat, Vanparv, shaloks 7-18
  17. ^ Bharuch page on Wikipedia
  18. ^ Sahiram; Ek Adhuri Kranti, Shekhawati ka Kisan Andolan, (1922-52), page 3
  19. ^ Manusmriti, Chapter 2, Shalok 19
  20. ^ Location of Brahmavarta and Drishadwati river is important to find the Earliest alignment of Saraswati River' by Sudhir Bhargava, Saraswati river a perspective, International Confeence, Nov. 20-22, 2009, Kurukshetra University, Kurukshetra
  21. ^ Saroj Bala, Saraswati River - a Mystery,India Today August 2006, pages 29-33
  22. ^ shalok 1.2, 1.3, Manusmriti
  23. ^ Sudhir Bhargava, "Location of Brahmavrat and Drishadwati river is important to find the earliest alignment of Saraswati River", international conference on "Saraswati River - a Perspective" at Kurukshetra University, Kurukshetra, organised by 'Saraswati Shodh Sansthan', Haryana, Nov. 20-22, 2009, page 114-117.
  24. ^ Litrary History, page 16
  25. ^ Wikipedia page on-Law of Thailand- Sources of Law
  26. ^ "Siamese law : old and new."
  27. ^ For composition between 200 BCE and 200 CE see: Avari, p. 142. For dating of composition between the 2nd century BCE and 3rd century CE see: Flood (1996), p. 56. For dating of Manu Smriti in "final form" to the 2nd century CE, see: Keay, p. 103. For dating as completed some time between 200 BCE and 100 CE see: Hopkins, p. 74. For probable origination during the 2nd or 3rd centuries AD, see: Kulke and Rothermund, p. 85. For the text as preserved dated to around the 1st century BCE. see: Encyclopædia Britannica Concise, retrieved 2007-06-24
  28. ^ For significance of post-empire social uncertainty as a factor in the development of the Code of Manas, see: Kulke and Rothermund, p. 85.
  29. ^ Thapar (2002), p. 279.
  30. ^ For the dharmashastras, including Manu Smriti, as the starting point for an independent tradition not dependent on Vedic origins, see: Hopkins, p. 74.
  31. ^ Olivelle(2004), pp. xxvii.
  32. ^ Olivelle(2004), p. xxv.
  33. ^ Manusmriti Chapter 2, shalok 17
  34. ^ Sudhir Bhargava, "Yoga for Mental Health - through rejuvenation of Spiritual Gods", 3rd International Yoga Seminar, 12-14 October 2012, Yoga Life Society, Ujjain, INDIA
  35. ^ Manusmriti, Chapter 1, Shalok 34
  36. ^ name="Manusmriti, Chapter 9, Shalok 335
  37. ^ Manusmriti, Chapter 11,shalok 97
  38. ^ Manusmriti, Chapter 2, shalok 157
  39. ^ Manusmriti, Chapter 1, Shaloks 97,98,99,100
  40. ^ Manusmriti, Chapter 1, Shalok 88
  41. ^ Manusmriti, Ch.1,Shalok 89
  42. ^ Manusmriti, Ch.1,Shalok 90
  43. ^ Manusmriti, Chapter 1, Shalok 91
  44. ^ Manusmriti, Chapter 1, Shalok 98
  45. ^ Aitareya Brahman, Chapter 2, Shalok 9
  46. ^ Vishnu Puran 4.1.13
  47. ^ Aitareya Brahman, Chapter 2, Shalok 19
  48. ^ Chapter 4.8.1
  49. ^ Page on Hem Chandra Vikramaditya on Wikipedia
  50. ^ Kane, P. V., History of Dharmaśāstra, (Poona: Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute, 1975), Volume I, Part I, 566.
  51. ^ a b Olivelle, Patrick, "Dharmaśāstra: A Literary History", 29.
  52. ^ Kane, P. V., History of Dharmaśāstra, (Poona: Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute, 1975), Volume I, Part II, 583.
  53. ^ Ratan Lal Basu & Rajkumar Sen, Ancient Indian Economic Thought, Relevance for Today, Rawat Publications, New Delhi (2008). ISBN 81-316-0125-0
  54. ^ Manusmriti, Chapter 2, Shalok 17
  55. ^ All about Vedic state of Brahmavarta, by Sudhir Bhargava, p3, Brahmavarta Research Foundation, Rewari
  56. ^ Statue of Sir William Jones in St. Peter's Cathedral, London is holding a copy of Manusmriti
  57. ^ For Manu Smriti as one of the first Sanskrit texts noted by the British and translation by Sir William Jones in 1794, see: Flood (1996), p. 56.
  58. ^ Thapar (2002), pp. 2–3.
  59. ^ Avari, Burjor. India, the ancient past: a history of the Indian subcontinent from c. 7000 BC to AD 1200. New York: Routledge, 2007. p. 142.
  60. ^ name="laxmitamang.blogspot.in
  61. ^ Revolution and Counter-Revolution in India
  62. ^ Romila Thapar, Asoka and the Decline of the Mauryas, Oxford University Press (1960) p. 200.
  63. ^ John Marshall, "An Historical and Artistic Description of Sanchi", from A Guide to Sanchi, citing p. 11. Calcutta: Superintendent, Government Printing (1918). Pp. 7–29 on line, Project South Asia.
  64. ^ K. V. Rao, Socialism, Secularism, and Democracy in India, pp. 28–30. Nagendra K. Singh, Enforcement of Human Rights in Peace and War and the Future of Humanity, p. 35. Martinus Nijhoff (1986) ISBN 90-247-3302-2
  65. ^ The Light of Truth, Chapter 4
  66. ^ Bhagavad Gita As It Is, Chapter 16 Text 7 – "...Even up to today, those who are Hindu follow the Manu-samhita..."
  67. ^ Friedrich Nietzsche, The Will to Power, vol. 1.
  68. ^ W.A.Borody, "The Manu Smrti and Neo-Secularism", International Journal of Humanities and Social Science, Vol I, No. 9 (Special Issue, July, 2011) [1]

Sources

  • Translation by G. Bühler (1886). Sacred Books of the East: The Laws of Manus (Vol. XXV). Oxford. Available online as The Laws of Manu
  • Flood, Gavin (1996). An Introduction to Hinduism. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-43878-0.
  • Hopkins, Thomas J. (1971). The Hindu Religious Tradition. Belmont, California: Wadsworth Publishing Company.
  • Keay, John (2000). India: A History. New York: Grove Press. ISBN 0-8021-3797-0.
  • Kulke, Hermann; Rothermund, Dietmar (1986). A History of India. New York: Barnes & Noble. ISBN 0-88029-577-5.
  • Olivelle, Patrick (2005). Manu's Code of Law: A Critical Edition and Translation of the Mānava-Dharmaśāstra. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-517146-2.
  • Olivelle, Patrick (2004). The Law Code of Manu. New York: OUP. ISBN 0-19-280271-2.
  • Olivelle, Patrick (to be published). "Dharmasastra: A Literary History". In Lubin, Timothy; Krishnan, Jayanth; and Davis, Jr., Donald R.. Law and Hinduism: An Introduction. Cambridge University Press.
  • Thapar, Romila (2002). Early India: From the Origins to AD 1300. Berkeley, California: University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-24225-4.
  •  "The Laws of Manu". Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company. 1913.

Tuesday, February 26, 2013

{लिम्बुवान विकास}

     {लिम्बुवान विकास

केन्द्रिय कार्यलयको ब्यबस्थापन र आर्थिक संयोजन

 १) मंच सम्बद्ध संघीय लिम्बुवान राज्य परिसद को केन्द्रिय कार्यलयको ब्यबस्थापन र आर्थिक संयोजन भावी आय र आयस्रोत नवनिर्माण विचार बिमर्श:- 
क) मन्च सम्बद्ध संघीय लिम्बुवान राज्य परिसद प्रबास कार्य समितिको संयोजन र संयोजक रहने गरि---
ख) मंच सम्बद्ध संघीय लिम्बुवान राज्य परिसद प्रबास कार्य समितिले सबै लिम्बुवान प्रेमी संघीय प्रेमीहरुलाई समानुपातिक दृष्टिकोण राखी एक ढिक्का पर्ने-----
ग) निस्वार्थ भावना नै सह:अस्तित्ववादको मेरुदण्ड हो भन्ने प्रमाणित गर्न जना विश्वासको ढिकुटी आस्थाले भर्ने----जस्तो:- समानुपातिक बिश्लेष्ण,समान अस्तित्व प्रतिनिधित्व,
घ) मंच सम्बद्ध संघीय लिम्बुवान राज्य परिसद प्रबास कार्य समितिको कुनै पनि देशको संयोजन र संयोजकत्व स्वीकार गरि स्काइप कन्फेरेन्स कार्यक्रम मा सरिक रहने-----
ङ) यहि बिषय बस्तुलाई आधार मानेर सबै देशका कार्यकारी प्रमुख लगाएत सदस्यहरुको स्काइप आइडी संकलन गर्ने------स्काइप आइडी संकलनको उदेश्य खुलाइनु जरुरि छ।
च) लिम्बुवान प्रेमी संघीय प्रेमी सबै तह तप्का का व्यक्तिहरुलाई स:सम्मान समेट्ने---
छ) उदेश्य र फाइदा दुवै पक्षलाई जनसमक्ष खुलाउने----- ..........................................................................................
२) योजनाहरु
१) लिम्बुवान भित्र सैक्षिक विकासको योजना
२) लिम्बुवान राज्य थेग्न का लागि आर्थिक श्रोतको संयोजनको योजना
३) हाम्रो पार्टी को मुख्य लक्ष्य र दर्शन कायेम राख्न सक्रिय प्रशिक्षण योजना
४) स्वस्थ,रोजगार जटिल समस्या लाइ हलगर्ने खालका प्राबिधिक योजना
५) ग्रामिण तह सम्म पार्टी को बिचार र विस्तारलाई अन्तरक्रियात्मक गरि पुर्र्याउने योजना
६) लिम्बुवान को आधार क्षेत्र निर्माण गर्ने योजना
७) लिम्बुवान विकास र विस्तारका योजना
८) जन-जल-जंगल को संरक्षणका योजना
९) उत्पादन र खपतका योजना
१०) भाषा विकास सक्तिको योजना
११) रोजगार सुलभ योजना
१२) लगानी अन्तर्मुखी बनाउने योजना
१३) कल-कारखाना बैज्ञानिक र ब्यबहारिक स्थापन योजना
१४) उपभोक्ता केन्द्रित उत्पादनको योजना
३) उद्धेश्य
१) लिम्बुवानी जनताको सर्वाङ्गिण विकास साथै गाँस-बास-कपास को सुलभता
२) केन्द्रिय नेता देखि ग्रामिण तह सम्मका संघात्मक नेताहरुमा सक्रिय र निस्वार्थता
 ३) केन्द्रिय उम्मेद्वारी प्रति कसरि जित प्राप्त गर्ने भन्ने बैज्ञानिक र ब्यबहारिक नीति अपनाउने
४) चुनाव मा कसरि समानुपातिक प्रतिनिधि पठाउने?
५) संघीय राज्यहरुको अबधारणा जनता समक्ष छर्लंग बनाउने
=============================================
४) ब्यबस्थापन र आर्थिक संयोजन भावी आय र आयस्रोत नवनिर्माण विचार बिमर्श: ======================================
क) केन्द्रिय कार्यलयको आज सम्म कुन (के)को आयस्रोतले चलिरहेको छ?
ख) केन्द्रिय कार्यलयको दैनिक खर्च कहाँ कसरि चलि रहेको छ?
ग) केन्द्रिय कार्यलयमा के कति आर्थिक भौतिक सामग्री को आबस्यकता पर्छ र त्यो छैन?
घ) केन्द्रिय कार्यलयको आबस्यकता पचासौं-सयौं बर्षको लागि हो अविछिन्न कालको लागि होइन
ङ) व्यक्तिगत नगन्य सहयोगले केन्द्रिय कार्यलय कहिले सम्म धान्ने?
च) हामी सबैले एक चोटी आफ्नो गच्छे अनुसार रकम सहायोग गेरेर आयस्रोतको आधारशिला निर्माण गर्ने-- छ) सानो रकम ले सानै काम ठुलो रकमको ठुलै काम भने जस्तै तपाई हामी जुट्ने
ज) प्रबास कार्य समितिको संयोजन मा आफु-आफु बसेको देशमा सबै लिम्बुवान जन्य तह तप्का संग रकम संकलन गर्ने-----
झ) संकलित रकम प्रबास कार्य समितिको संयोजन मै राखी सबै देश द्वारा कन्फेरेन्स मिटिंग मा अपडेट गर्ने ञ) अपडेटिंग रकमको क्यापिटल तयार पारि त्यस बजेटलाई कहाँ कसरि इन्भेष्ट गर्ने?भन्ने बारेमा फेरी कन्फेरेन्स मिटिंग गर्ने---- =====================================================
५) प्रबास कार्य समितिहरु बाट संकलित रकम कहाँ लगानी गर्ने? प्रोजेक्ट:- 
1) बिद्युत
2) हस्पिटल
3) कृषि
 4) उद्योग
5) शिक्षा क्रमश:थप्दै जानुस 2-3-4-5,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
६) प्रबास कार्य समितिहरुबाट संयुक्त लगानी गर्दा हुने दिर्घकालिन फाइदाहरु
 क) पार्टी सन्चालन गर्नको लागि कसै संग हात फिजाउनु पर्दैन आफ्नै आयस्रोतमा पार्टी चल्छ
ख) लगानी बाट उत्पादन गरिएका चिजहरु लिम्बुवान बासि जनताहरुले सुलभ मुल्यमा उपभोग गर्न पाईन्छ! ग) लिम्बुवान कै उपभोक्ताहरुलाई उत्पादन खपत भइ बाँकि रहेको उत्पादन बाहिय बजारमा पथौन सकिन्छ। घ) संघिय लिम्बुवान राज्यका सक्षम युबा युबतीहरुलाई रोजगारीको अवसर प्राप्त हुन्छ !
ङ) उक्त लगानी जनतामुखी हुन सके लिम्बुवान एकताको माहोल सृजना हुन्छ !
च) दिर्घकालिन आयस्रोत र भाबि पिडीहरुलाई अन्य कार्यको लागि सिक्षा मिल्छ !
७) उक्त लगानी गर्नको लागि तत्काललाई असर पार्ने कुराहरु
क) चुनाब -यदि रासट्रमा चुनाब हुने अबस्था भयमा पार्टीलाई चुनाबी खर्चपनि प्रभास बाटै जुटाउनु पर्ने भयको हुनाले पटक पटक रकम संग्कलन गर्दा जनताहरुको मन मस्तिक्समा नैरस्यता पैदा हुने होकी ?
ख) आन्दोलन -हाल चारदलको निर्णयको बिरुद्धमा पार्टी ससक्त रुपमा आन्दोलनमा उत्रनु पर्ने अबस्था सृजना भयमा बिना आर्थिक आन्दोलन सम्भब नहुने भयको हुनाले सो को लागि पनि आर्थिक संग्कलन गर्ने पर्ने हुन्छ !
ग) लिम्बुवान नेपाल केन्द्रीय कार्यालयको मासिक घर भाडा र बिधुत महसुल -
१०) विभिन्न देशहरुमा मन्च सम्बद्ध लिम्बुवान राज्य परिसद प्रबास कार्य समिति ग्लोबलाइज लिम्बुवान इकोनोमिक्स एण्ड इन्भेस्टमेन्ट
११) प्रबास कार्य समितिहरुले रकम संकलन गर्न केन्द्रिय र क्षेत्रीय समितिहरु आबस्यक संख्यामा गठन गरि परिचालन गर्ने र लिम्बुवानको बैधानिक छाप र प्रबास कार्य समिति को अधक्षको सहि सहितको रसिद बिनियोजन गर्ने
१२) प्रबास कार्य समितिका हरेक देशहरु बाट १-१ जना सदस्य रहने गरि लगानी संयोजन कार्य समिति गठन गर्ने
१३) मन्च सम्बद्ध संघिय लिम्बुवान प्रबास कार्य समितिहरु द्वारा रकम डोनेशन या संकलन गर्दा ध्यान दिने पर्ने कुराहरु,,,,,,,,,
 क) स्वच्छ मानशिक स्थिति
ख) त्यो रकम कुनै व्यक्तिलाई नभई हाम्रो लिम्बुवानलाई हो भन्ने गहन ज्ञान
ग) रकम को मूल अंश को स्वामित्व प्रबास कार्य समिति संगै रहने गरि
 घ) लगानीको प्रतिनिधित्व मात्र केन्द्रिय कार्यालयको केन्दीय समिति रहने गरि
ङ) लगानी पछि आकस्मिक हुन जाने अपुग रकमलाई प्रबास कार्य समिति ले नै परिपूर्ति गर्ने धारणा को ज्ञान च) प्रबास कार्य समिति बाट जम्मा गरिएको रकम लाई सपोर्टिंङ स्वोरुप केन्द्रिय कार्य समिति,जिल्ला कार्य समिति,नगर कार्य समिति,गाउँ कार्य समितिका सम्पूर्ण भूपू तथा वर्तमान कार्यकारी सदस्यहरु द्वारा गच्छे अनुसार रकम जम्मा गर्ने र ९ जिल्ला को हरेक गाउँ विकास समितिको सक्रियतामा आबस्यक काममा सर्वदान हुनु पर्ने
छ) प्रबास कार्य समीको लगानी द्वारा आलोचना र आरोपहरुबाट लिम्बुवानको संस्थापक कार्यकारीहरुलाई सके सम्म टाढा राख्ने रणनीति प्रबास कार्य समिति कै हुनु पर्ने
ज) आलोचित बिषयहरुलाई गठित संयोजन कार्य समिति द्वारा नै सफाई र समाधानको दायित्व पुरा गर्ने
झ) गठित संयोजन कार्य समिति द्वारा लगानीमा हेरफेर गर्ने अनियमितता गर्ने पार्टीका साना-ठुला सबै तहका कार्यकर्ताहरुलाई हदै सम्मको सजाय दिन सक्ने,,,क)आर्थिक ख) भौतिक ग) प्रसासनिक घ) राजनैतिक

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Monday, February 25, 2013

यी देश द्रोही बाहुनबादीहरुको लागि जति खेर चाहायो त्यति खेर बाधा-अड्चन फुकाउन मिल्ने???

[दिपेन योङहाङ ]
लिम्बुवान,खम्बुवान,तमासालिंग, तमुवान,नेवा,मगरात,खसान,जडान,थारुहट, मैथिल आदिबासी-मुलबासी जनजाती,मधेसी-मुश्लिम,महिला,दलित,पिछडा बर्ग र सबै तह तप्का का संघियबादीहरुको एकता हुन अत्ति जरुरि छ,,,,सहकार्यको हात बढाउनुस,,,फलाना सिद्धान्त, ढिस्काना सिद्धान्त मा नअल्मलिनुस यतिखेर हाम्रो एकताको जरुरि छ,सहकार्य गर्न ढिलाई नगरौं, यी एकात्मक बादी कांग्रेस-एमाले, मधेशी मोर्चा,ए- माओबादीले हाम्रो ढिलाईको फाइदा उठाएर हाम्रो पहिचान र अस्तित्व माथि खेलबाड गरि रहने छन्,१ महिना २ महिना ३ महिना थप्दै-थब्दै ४ वर्ष बिताए अन्त्यमा मध्यरातमा संबिधानसभा नै बिघटन गरेर तुहाये,अब यिनीहरुले प्रधानन्यायधिसलाई असंबैधानिक-अलोकतान्त्रिक मन्त्रि बनाएर अर्को नाटक सुरु गरे यो नाटक पनि लिम्बुवान, खम्बुवान,तमासालिंग, तमुवान,नेवा,मगरात, खसान, जडान,थारुहट, मैथिल आदिबासी-मुलबासी जनजाती, मधेसी-मुश्लिम,महिला,दलित,पिछडा बर्गको निम्ति एउटा कालखण्ड नै भएर टुंग्याउने छन्,यी एकात्मक बाहुनबादीहरुको लागि जति खेर चाहायो त्यति खेर बाधा-अड्चन फुकाउन मिल्ने तर हाम्रो पहिचान र अस्तित्वलाई समान सम्बोधन गर्न चाही दश थरिको बाधा अड्चन र देश टुक्रिन्छ भन्दै आरोप लगाउने?गाउँ-गाउँ बस्ति-सहरबाट उठौं,हरेक संघीय प्रेमी, देश प्रेमी सबै उठौं,लिम्बुवान,खम्बुवान, तमासालिंग, तमुवान,नेवा,मगरात,खसान,जडान,थारुहट, मैथिल आदिबासी-मुलबासी जनजाती,मधेसी-मुश्लिम, महिला, दलित, पिछडा बर्ग सबै एक जुट हौँ,यी देश द्रोही एकात्मक बाहुनबादी एमाले-कांग्रेस-ए-माओबादी,मधेशी मोर्चाहरुलाई गाउँ बस्ति-सहरबाट बहिस्कार गरौँ,,,,,कामरेड अशोक राई,आङ काजी शेर्पा दाजै नेपाल फर्किनुस प्रवासका लाखौं-करोडौं आवाजहरु सधै तपाईहरुसँगै रहने छ,फर्किनुस एकताको हुरी चलाउनुस,,गाउँ बस्ति-सहरहरुमा,,,,सिंगो देशको अस्मिता ४ जना एकात्मक चुच्चेहरुले भाग-बन्डा गरेर बलात्कार गर्न लागि सके,,,,एक कानुनका रखवालालाई देशको अस्मिता लुट्न चढाई सके,,,,यो कानुनी रखवाला बोका जब स्खलित हुन्छ यिन ४ जना एकात्मक बाहुनबादी चुच्चेहरुको मुखमा स्खलन गराउन हरेक संघीय प्रेमी, देश प्रेमी सबै उठौं,लिम्बुवान,खम्बुवान, तमासालिंग, तमुवान,नेवा,मगरात,खसान,जडान, थारुहट,मैथिल आदिबासी-मुलबासी जनजाती,मधेसी-मुश्लिम, महिला, दलित, पिछडा बर्ग सबै जुटौं,एकताको हुण्डरी चलाउँ,,,,,,जय आदिबासी जनजाती असमान नेपालीहरु,,,,जय लिम्बुवान,खम्बुवान, तमासालिंग, तमुवान,नेवा,मगरात,खसान,जडान, थारुहट,मैथिल,,,,,,,,,,,,,,!!!




   

हाक्फारे साम्लो

Friday, February 22, 2013

mundhumaaaa

Tak khangm mundum:
HINGSUM MUKKI HING MIK SAPMINK SAPLO
NUHING MUKKI LUMIK SAPLO
MIHING MUKKI KUKHA SAPLO
NIMANA KHAMHINGLO
ज्यान बाँध्ने 
[हिङ्सुम मुक्की हिङमिक सेप्लो ,,,,,
नुहिङ मुक्की लुमिक सेप्लो,,,,,,
मि~हिङ मुक्की कुखाप् सेप्लो,,,,,
निमेन्ना खेम्हिङ्लो,,,,,,]

Thank you lungwa

BEFORE HAVING FOOD MUNDHUM
खाना खान भन्दा अगाडी भन्ने मुन्धुम,,,,,
=========================
YAMING KUBEEYANG HUKWA
HINGSUM SAPKA MUKKI
YAMING MANGLING SUSING
HINGSUM SAPGA HUKWAMIN
यामिङ कुबि~ याङ हुक्वा,,,,,,,,,
हिङ्ग्सुम सेप्क मुक्की,,,,,,,,,
यामिङ माङलिङ सुसिङ,,,,,,,,,
हिङसुम सेप्ग हुक्वामिन,,,,,
Before going to bed:
सुत्न जानु भन्दा अगाडी:
ni..ni..ni..NINAM
LEHING NINAMINN
MIKNINGWA HINGNUM
YAMING YAGOO NINAM MEEN
YANUM MUKPOO HUNGSA
YAMING MING MUNG NAROO
नि,,नि,,,नि,,निनाम,,,,
लिहिङ्ग निनामिन्,,,,,,
मिकनिङ्वा हिङ्नुम,,,,,
यामिङ्ग यागो निनामिन,,,,,
यानुम मुक्पॊ हुङ्ग्सा,,,,,,
यामिङ्ग मिङ् मुङ् नारो,,,,,,,,,,  

:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::

ani jiu bandhne bhaneko ni lungwa

Nimang may NIMINGMI
HINGNA SAHING YAMHUROO
KHANNU MIKLAP OONSAGLOK
NUMUKLAGAA HINGMI ONLOO
 बिहानै कोहि सन्ग नि नबोली।।।।।।
निमाङमे  निमाङमि,,,,,
हिङ्ना साहिङ् यामहुरो,,,,,
खेन्नु  मिक्लेप उन्साङ्ग्लो,,,,
नुमुक्लाग  हिङमिक ओन्लो,,,,
===================
धुप या दियो बाल्दा
============
नि~~ ओन् साङ्ग्मि 
नि~~ माङ्ग्नुम साङ्ग्मिन 
नि~~ कुमुक परम माङ्निम् 
हुङ्हा निनाम निमिङमि
================
से`से साङ्-साङ्
मुन्धुम इथुम चोकमा मुन्धुम 
===================
माङ्ग यामिङ् लायोफेन्याक
माङ्ग यामिङ्ग खेम्बा खेनयाक   
 माङ्ग यामिङ्ग लायो खेम्बा खेन्याक सेप्तेओ
-----------------------------------
युमा लाई बोलाउने समय आयो
====================
मि~माङ्ग्मे श्री-श्रीमा युमा माङ् निमिङ्ग्मि३
------------------------------------------
नि~~माङ्निम माङ् पो माङ्वा ए,,,,
सुनु मुङ्नाम् इङ्ग्नाम्लो
मुक या मुक पो हिङ्ग्नाम्लो
सुसिङ्ग इङ् लत्  सेप्नारो
हिङ्नाम नामुक इतमुख्लो
निमिङ्ग्मि,,,,,,,,,,